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  <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">67</journal-id>
  <journal-id journal-id-type="short-title">gfpr</journal-id>
  <journal-id journal-id-type="doi">10.31703/gfpr</journal-id>
  <journal-title-group>
    <journal-title>Global Foreign Policies Review</journal-title>
    <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">gfpr</abbrev-journal-title>
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  <issn publication-format="print">2788-502X</issn>
  <issn publication-format="electronic">2788-5038</issn>
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  <publisher>
    <publisher-name>Humanity Publications</publisher-name>
    <publisher-loc>Pakistan</publisher-loc>
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<article-meta>
  <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">395836</article-id>
  <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.31703/gfpr.2025(VIII-III).04</article-id>
  <article-id pub-id-type="other" specific-use="submission-id">6303</article-id>
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  <title-group>
    <article-title xml:lang="en">National Security, Artificial Intelligence, and Sovereignty beyond Earth: Reconstructing the Legal Architecture of Space Intelligence Networks</article-title>
  </title-group>
<contrib-group>
  <contrib contrib-type="author" seq="1" corresp="yes">
    <name>
      <surname>Munir</surname>
      <given-names>Bakht</given-names>
    </name>
    <role vocab="credit" vocab-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/" vocab-term="Conceptualization" vocab-term-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/contributor-roles/conceptualization/">Conceptualization</role>
    <role vocab="credit" vocab-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/" vocab-term="Writing – original draft" vocab-term-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/contributor-roles/writing-original-draft/">Writing – original draft</role>
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    <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"/>
  </contrib>
  <contrib contrib-type="author" seq="2">
    <name>
      <surname>Khan</surname>
      <given-names>Ali Nawaz</given-names>
    </name>
    <role vocab="credit" vocab-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/" vocab-term="Writing – review &amp; editing" vocab-term-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/contributor-roles/writing-review-editing/">Writing – review &amp; editing</role>
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  </contrib>
  <contrib contrib-type="author" seq="3">
    <name>
      <surname>Raza</surname>
      <given-names>Ahmed</given-names>
    </name>
    <role vocab="credit" vocab-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/" vocab-term="Writing – review &amp; editing" vocab-term-identifier="https://credit.niso.org/contributor-roles/writing-review-editing/">Writing – review &amp; editing</role>
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  </contrib>
  <aff id="aff1">
    <label>1</label>
    <institution-wrap>
      <institution>Postdoctoral Fellow</institution>
    </institution-wrap>
    <addr-line>The University of Kansas School of Law</addr-line>
    <country>United States</country>
  </aff>
  <aff id="aff2">
    <label>2</label>
    <institution-wrap>
      <institution>University Law College, University of the Punjab, Lahore</institution>
    </institution-wrap>
    <named-content content-type="author-role">Assistant Professor</named-content>
    <addr-line>Punjab</addr-line>
    <country>Pakistan</country>
  </aff>
  <aff id="aff3">
    <label>3</label>
    <institution-wrap>
      <institution>LLM Scholar</institution>
    </institution-wrap>
    <addr-line>Pennsylvania State University</addr-line>
    <country>United States</country>
  </aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
  <corresp id="cor1">Corresponding Author: Bakht Munir, Postdoctoral Fellow, The University of Kansas School of Law, USA.</corresp>
<fn fn-type="COI-statement" id="fn-coi">
  <p>The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.</p>
</fn>
<fn fn-type="ethics-statement" id="fn-ethics">
  <p>This study did not require formal ethics approval.</p>
</fn>
<fn fn-type="data-availability-statement" id="fn-data">
  <p>Data sharing is not applicable to this article.</p>
</fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub" date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
  <day>30</day>
  <month>09</month>
  <year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection">
  <month>09</month>
  <year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="print">
  <day>08</day>
  <month>08</month>
  <year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
  <volume>8</volume>
  <issue>3</issue>
  <season>Summer</season>
  <fpage>29</fpage>
  <lpage>37</lpage>
  <history>
    <date date-type="accepted">
      <day>08</day>
      <month>08</month>
      <year>2025</year>
    </date>
  </history>
<funding-group>
  <funding-statement>
<p>The authors received no specific funding for this work.</p>
  </funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<permissions>
  <copyright-year>2025</copyright-year>
  <copyright-holder>Humanity Publications</copyright-holder>
  <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
    <license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.</license-p>
  </license>
</permissions>
<self-uri content-type="text/html" xlink:href="https://gfprjournal.com/article/national-security-artificial-intelligence-and-sovereignty-beyond-earth-reconstructing-the-legal-architecture-of-space-intelligence-networks"/>
<self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="https://gfprjournal.com/pdf/gfpr/bZZ6pPMmN6.pdf"/>
<supplementary-material id="suppl-pdf" content-type="pdf" xlink:href="https://gfprjournal.com/pdf/gfpr/bZZ6pPMmN6.pdf">
  <label>PDF</label>
  <caption>
    <title>Full Text PDF</title>
  </caption>
</supplementary-material>
  <abstract>
    <p>Artificial intelligence (AI) is now a determining factor in the development of outer-space operations. The national security, intelligence and early warning systems are currently under the influence of autonomous satellites, constellations of sensors, and deep-learning algorithms. However, the existing legal framework, which is based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, is insufficient to support the transparency and autonomy of AI. The article analyzes the challenges of sovereignty and accountability faced by states due to algorithmic decision-making. It reclaims the legal framework of space intelligence networks by proposing a stratified structure of sovereignty, along with physical, algorithmic, and institutional novelty, such as a Space Intelligence Authority. Based on comparative space law, AI governance theory, and normative fairness analysis, this paper proposes a design of a regulatory framework for space-based intelligence that not only pertains to the control of the territory but also addresses the algorithmic and AI-based decision-making in space.</p>
  </abstract>
<kwd-group kwd-group-type="author-keywords">
  <kwd>Artificial Intelligence</kwd>
  <kwd>National Security</kwd>
  <kwd>Space Law</kwd>
  <kwd>Sovereignty</kwd>
  <kwd>Accountability</kwd>
  <kwd>Liability</kwd>
  <kwd>Outer Space Treaty</kwd>
  <kwd>AI Governance</kwd>
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</front>
<body>
  <sec id="sec-intro">
    <title>Content</title>
    <p>Artificial intelligence (AI) is now a determining factor in the development of outer-space operations. The national security, intelligence and early warning systems are currently under the influence of autonomous satellites, constellations of sensors, and deep-learning algorithms. However, the existing legal framework, which is based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, is insufficient to support the transparency and autonomy of AI. The article analyzes the challenges of sovereignty and accountability faced by states due to algorithmic decision-making. It reclaims the legal framework of space intelligence networks by proposing a stratified structure of sovereignty, along with physical, algorithmic, and institutional novelty, such as a Space Intelligence Authority. Based on comparative space law, AI governance theory, and normative fairness analysis, this paper proposes a design of a regulatory framework for space-based intelligence that not only pertains to the control of the territory but also addresses the algorithmic and AI-based decision-making in space.</p>
  </sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group content-type="conflict-of-interest">
  <title>Conflict of Interest</title>
  <fn fn-type="conflict">
<p>The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.</p>
  </fn>
</fn-group>
<fn-group content-type="ethics-statement">
  <title>Ethics Statement</title>
  <fn fn-type="ethics">
<p>This study did not require formal ethics approval.</p>
  </fn>
</fn-group>
<fn-group content-type="data-availability">
  <title>Data Availability</title>
  <fn fn-type="data-availability-statement">
<p>Data sharing is not applicable to this article.</p>
  </fn>
</fn-group>
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  <app id="app-suppl">
    <title>Supplementary Materials</title>
<supplementary-material id="suppl-pdf" content-type="pdf" xlink:href="https://gfprjournal.com/pdf/gfpr/bZZ6pPMmN6.pdf">
  <label>PDF</label>
  <caption>
    <title>Full Text PDF</title>
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